Defence
Is “lawyer” a protected title, and who decides who gets to be one?
Three systems, three techniques. One reserves six named activities and regulates by authorisation; one reserves categories of work to those inscribed in a single national body; one constitutes the lawyer as an independent organ of the administration of justice.
In short
Most legal systems restrict some legal work to people who have been admitted to something. What is restricted, who admits, and what the admitted person is called differ so much between systems that the English word "lawyer" carries almost no information on its own. The useful questions are what activity is reserved, who controls entry, and what the person is constituted as once admitted.
Why it exists
AnalysisThe case for restricting legal work is that the person receiving it usually cannot evaluate it. Someone who does not know the law cannot tell whether the advice they were given was competent until the consequences arrive, and by then the matter may be beyond repair. Restriction substitutes a check on the adviser for a judgment the client cannot make.
AnalysisThe case against is that every restriction is also a barrier. Work that only admitted persons may do costs what admitted persons charge, and a system that reserved everything would price out the people who most need help. Every arrangement here is a line drawn between those two arguments, and where the line falls is a policy choice this page describes rather than evaluates.
How it works
England and Wales reserves activities, not status. Section 12(1) of the Legal Services Act 2007 defines "reserved legal activity" as six named things: the exercise of a right of audience; the conduct of litigation; reserved instrument activities; probate activities; notarial activities; and the administration of oaths. Section 13 provides that whether a person is entitled to carry on a reserved legal activity is to be determined solely in accordance with the Act, and that a person is entitled where they are an authorised person, or an exempt person, in relation to that activity.
The Act also excludes something explicitly. Section 12(4) provides that "legal activity" does not include any activity of a judicial or quasi-judicial nature, including acting as a mediator — so mediation is placed outside the regulated category rather than inside it.
Brazil reserves broader categories and ties them to a single body. Article 1 of Lei 8.906/1994 makes the activities exclusive to advocacia the postulation to any organ of the Judiciary and to the juizados especiais, and the activities of legal consultancy, advice and direction. Article 3 provides that the exercise of advocacy in Brazilian territory and the designation advogado are exclusive to those inscribed in the Ordem dos Advogados do Brasil.
Brazil also says what the advogado is, in the constitution and again in the statute. Article 133 of the Constitution provides that the advogado is indispensable to the administration of justice and is inviolable for their acts and statements in the exercise of the profession, within the limits of the law; Article 2 of the statute repeats the first half and adds that in their private ministry the advogado renders a public service and exercises a social function, and that in judicial proceedings their acts constitute a múnus público.
Germany opens with the same kind of statement and makes it the whole of section 1 of the Federal Lawyers’ Act: "Der Rechtsanwalt ist ein unabhängiges Organ der Rechtspflege" — the Rechtsanwalt is an independent organ of the administration of justice. Section 3 adds that the Rechtsanwalt is the appointed independent adviser and representative in all legal matters, that the right to appear before courts, arbitral tribunals or authorities may be restricted only by federal statute, and that everyone has the right, within the statutory provisions, to be advised and represented by a Rechtsanwalt of their choice.
Admission and discipline sit with professional bodies in both systems, organised quite differently. In Germany a Rechtsanwaltskammer is formed for the district of each Oberlandesgericht and has its seat at that court, with its members being those it has admitted or received. In Brazil the OAB is a single federative body described by statute as a serviço público, with the Conselho Federal as its supreme organ and Conselhos Seccionais with jurisdiction over each state; Article 44 II gives it, exclusively, the representation, defence, selection and discipline of advogados throughout the country.
Common misconceptions
Widely held beliefs that do not match how the system actually operates.
Common belief: Lawyer, attorney, advocate, barrister and solicitor are different words for the same job.
In practice: Each is defined by the system that uses it. England and Wales attaches entitlement to six named activities and to authorisation for each; Brazil ties exclusive activities to inscription in the OAB; Germany constitutes the Rechtsanwalt by statute as an independent organ of the administration of justice.
Common belief: Only lawyers may give legal advice.
In practice: Not in England and Wales as a matter of the Legal Services Act: giving legal advice is not one of the six reserved legal activities, though appearing in court and conducting litigation are. Brazil, by contrast, does place legal consultancy among the exclusive activities.
Common belief: A lawyer is a private service provider like any other.
In practice: Both German and Brazilian law say otherwise in their own text. The Rechtsanwalt is an independent organ of the administration of justice; the advogado is indispensable to the administration of justice and, in their private ministry, renders a public service.
Common belief: Because the state licenses lawyers, lawyers answer to the state.
In practice: In the systems described here admission and discipline sit with a professional body rather than a government department, and Brazilian statute states expressly that the OAB maintains no functional or hierarchical link with organs of public administration.
Common belief: Everything a court touches is reserved to lawyers.
In practice: Brazilian statute expressly excludes the petition of habeas corpus in any instance or court from the exclusive activity of advocacia, and the English Act excludes acting as a mediator from "legal activity" altogether.
How this varies between jurisdictions
A required section on every guide. Arrangements differ between countries, and we say how.
Three techniques, and they are not variants of one another.
- Reserve six named activities; entitlement determined solely by the Act, through authorisation or exemption — England and Wales, LSA 2007 ss. 12–13.
- Reserve postulation and legal consultancy to those inscribed in one national body, with habeas corpus carved out — Brazil, Lei 8.906 Arts. 1 and 3.
- Constitute the lawyer as an independent organ of the administration of justice, restrictable only by federal statute — Germany, BRAO §§ 1 and 3.
Rights and accountability
Restriction of legal work is justified by the protection it gives clients, which means the protection has to be real. In both systems that admit by professional body, the same body that admits also disciplines — Germany through the Kammer that received the member, Brazil through a body given selection and discipline exclusively by statute.
The duties attached to admission are the other half. German law requires the Rechtsanwalt to enter into no ties endangering professional independence, binds them to confidentiality over everything learned in the exercise of the profession, forbids unobjective conduct, and prohibits acting where they have advised or represented another client in the same matter in a conflicting interest.
What we could not establish
- Three systems are described from primary statutory text. This page describes who may act, not how a person becomes able to act — qualification routes are the subject of [what qualifying as a lawyer requires](/defence/what-qualifying-as-a-lawyer-requires), which covers England and Wales only. For the three systems described here, the bodies that authorise were not researched.
- This page describes who may act. It says nothing about how to find, choose, instruct or complain about a lawyer anywhere.
Where to go next
Related: what qualifying as a lawyer requires, representing yourself, what defence counsel does, and the defence lawyer.
Related topics
- Can a person go to court without a lawyer?
Sometimes, and in some situations not even if they want to. The right to choose a lawyer implies a right to decline one — until a system decides the case is too serious to be conducted without defence, at which point the choice is removed.
- What is the difference between legal aid, a public defender and court-appointed counsel?
They are not synonyms. Legal aid is a funding scheme, public defence is an institution, and appointment is a procedure — and a system can have any one without the others. Only some states employ the lawyers they pay for.
- What is the job of a defence lawyer in a criminal case?
To protect the accused person’s legal interests: to advise, to see the material, to test whether the case is proved to the required standard, and to ensure the procedures the law provides are actually followed.
Sources
The National Archives (legislation.gov.uk) · Legislation · 2007 · link verified 2026-08-26
The official revised text of both sections, read directly (s. 13 at https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2007/29/section/13). Supports s. 12(1): "reserved legal activity" means the exercise of a right of audience; the conduct of litigation; reserved instrument activities; probate activities; notarial activities; and the administration of oaths — six named activities, with Schedule 2 making provision about what constitutes each. Supports s. 12(3): "legal activity" means an activity that is a reserved legal activity as originally enacted, and any other activity consisting of the provision of legal advice or assistance in connection with the application of the law or any form of resolution of legal disputes, or the provision of representation in connection with any such matter. Supports s. 12(4): "legal activity" does not include any activity of a judicial or quasi-judicial nature, including acting as a mediator. Supports s. 13(1): whether a person is entitled to carry on a reserved legal activity is to be determined solely in accordance with the provisions of the Act; and s. 13(2): a person is entitled where they are an authorised person, or an exempt person, in relation to that activity. Both provisions are extent-marked "E+W". This is the law of ENGLAND AND WALES; it supports nothing about Scotland or Northern Ireland, which have separate arrangements, and nothing about any other country. It supports no claim about which bodies authorise, about qualification routes, or about the professional titles used.
Lei nº 8.906, de 4 de julho de 1994 — Estatuto da Advocacia e da Ordem dos Advogados do Brasil (OAB)
Presidência da República — Casa Civil (Planalto) · Legislation · 1994-07-04 · link verified 2026-08-26
The authoritative Portuguese text, read directly. Supports Art. 1: the activities exclusive to advocacia ("atividades privativas de advocacia") are postulation to any organ of the Judiciary and to the juizados especiais (I) and the activities of legal consultancy, advice and direction (II) — and § 1 that the petition of habeas corpus in any instance or court is NOT included in that exclusive activity. Supports Art. 2: "O advogado é indispensável à administração da justiça"; § 1 that in their private ministry the advogado renders a public service and exercises a social function; § 2 that in judicial proceedings the advogado contributes to convincing the adjudicator in seeking a decision favourable to their client and that their acts constitute a múnus público; and § 3 that in the exercise of the profession the advogado is inviolable for their acts and statements, within the limits of the law. Supports Art. 3: the exercise of advocacy in Brazilian territory and the designation advogado are exclusive to those inscribed in the OAB, and § 1 that members of the Advocacia-Geral da União, the Procuradoria da Fazenda Nacional, the DEFENSORIA PÚBLICA and the state, Federal District and municipal legal offices exercise advocacy and are subject to this regime in addition to their own. Supports Art. 44: the OAB is a "serviço público, dotada de personalidade jurídica e forma federativa" whose purposes are to defend the Constitution, the legal order of the democratic state of law, human rights and social justice and to press for the good application of the laws, the rapid administration of justice and the improvement of legal culture and institutions (I), and to promote, EXCLUSIVELY, the representation, defence, selection and discipline of advogados throughout the Federative Republic of Brazil (II) — with § 1: "A OAB não mantém com órgãos da Administração Pública qualquer vínculo funcional ou hierárquico." Supports Art. 45: the organs of the OAB are the Conselho Federal, the Conselhos Seccionais, the Subseções and the Caixas de Assistência dos Advogados, the Conselho Federal being the supreme organ. The Portuguese text alone has legal effect. It supports nothing about any other country and no claim about numbers, fees or practice.
Constituição da República Federativa do Brasil de 1988
Presidência da República — Casa Civil (Planalto) · Legislation · 1988-10-05 · link verified 2026-07-25
The authoritative Portuguese text, read in full. THE backbone of the Brazil pages. Supports: the federation of the Union, the States, the Federal District and the Municipalities, 'todos autônomos' (Art. 18; Art. 1); separation of powers (Art. 2); the criminal-justice guarantees of Art. 5 — devido processo legal (LIV), contraditório e ampla defesa (LV), presumption of innocence 'ninguém será considerado culpado até o trânsito em julgado de sentença penal condenatória' (LVII), and habeas corpus (LXVIII); that penal and procedural law are the EXCLUSIVE (privativa) competence of the Union (Art. 22, I) while direito penitenciário is CONCURRENT (Art. 24, I) and the States hold the reserved/residual competences (Art. 25 §1); public security through the six órgãos of Art. 144 (I polícia federal; II rodoviária federal; III ferroviária federal; IV polícias civis; V polícias militares e corpos de bombeiros militares; VI polícias penais, added by EC 104/2019), with the polícias civis 'dirigidas por delegados de polícia de carreira' exercising 'as funções de polícia judiciária e a apuração de infrações penais, exceto as militares' (§4), the polícias militares holding 'a polícia ostensiva e a preservação da ordem pública' (§5), and both subordinate to the Governors (§6); the Judiciary organs of Art. 92 (STF, CNJ, STJ, TST, TRFs/Juízes Federais, and the labour, electoral, military and state courts), the STF as guardian of the Constitution (Art. 102), the CNJ (Art. 103-B) and state justice (Art. 125); the Ministério Público as 'instituição permanente, essencial à função jurisdicional do Estado' defending 'a ordem jurídica, o regime democrático e os interesses sociais e individuais indisponíveis', with autonomy and the principles of unidade, indivisibilidade e independência funcional (Art. 127), its structure MPU (MPF/MPT/MPM/MPDFT) + MPE (Art. 128), its functions including promoting 'privativamente, a ação penal pública' (Art. 129 I) and the inquérito civil / ação civil pública for interesses difusos e coletivos (Art. 129 III), and the CNMP (Art. 130-A); and that the Union organizes and maintains the Judiciary, Ministério Público and police of the Federal District (Art. 21, XIII–XIV). The Portuguese text alone has legal effect. WAVE 12 ADDITION, further clauses of Art. 5 read directly from the same Planalto text: XXXV a lei não excluirá da apreciação do Poder Judiciário lesão ou ameaça a direito; XXXVI the law shall not impair a vested right, a perfect juridical act or res judicata; XXXVII não haverá juízo ou tribunal de exceção; XXXIX não há crime sem lei anterior que o defina, nem pena sem prévia cominação legal; XL a lei penal não retroagirá, salvo para beneficiar o réu; LVI evidence obtained by unlawful means is inadmissible in the process; LXXV the State shall indemnify a person convicted by judicial error and one held beyond the term fixed in the sentence; LXXVIII reasonable duration of proceedings and the means guaranteeing the speed of their handling, in the judicial and administrative spheres. WAVE 14 ADDITION, further provisions read directly from the same Planalto text: Art. 5º LXXIV “o Estado prestará assistência jurídica integral e gratuita aos que comprovarem insuficiência de recursos”; Art. 5º LXXVI that civil birth registration and the death certificate are free, in the form of the law, for the recognisedly poor; Art. 5º LXXVII that actions of habeas corpus and habeas data are free, as are, in the form of the law, the acts necessary to the exercise of citizenship; Art. 103-B § 4º that the Conselho Nacional de Justiça has competence for “o controle da atuação administrativa e financeira do Poder Judiciário e do cumprimento dos deveres funcionais dos juízes”, including safeguarding the autonomy of the Judiciary and issuing regulatory acts (I), reviewing the legality of administrative acts of members or organs of the Judiciary and annulling, revising or setting a period for compliance (II), and receiving complaints against members or organs of the Judiciary including its auxiliary services and delegated notarial and registry services, taking over disciplinary proceedings in course and ordering removal, availability or retirement and applying other administrative sanctions (III); Art. 133 “O advogado é indispensável à administração da justiça, sendo inviolável por seus atos e manifestações no exercício da profissão, nos limites da lei”; and Art. 134 in its current wording, that the Defensoria Pública is a permanent institution essential to the jurisdictional function of the State, incumbent on it, as an expression and instrument of the democratic regime, fundamentally to provide legal guidance, the promotion of human rights and the defence, in all degrees, judicial and extrajudicial, of the individual and collective rights of the needy. WAVE 20 ADDITION. Read from the same Planalto text. Brazil states its emergency architecture as a closed system: two regimes, an exhaustive list of measures for each, and an express preservation of liability afterwards. Supports Constituição de 1988, Art. 136, caput: “Art. 136. O Presidente da República pode, ouvidos o Conselho da República e o Conselho de Defesa Nacional, decretar estado de defesa para preservar ou prontamente restabelecer, em locais restritos e determinados, a ordem pública ou a paz social ameaçadas por grave e iminente instabilidade institucional ou atingidas por calamidades de grandes proporções na natureza.”. Supports Constituição de 1988, Art. 136 § 2º, added after adversarial review found this platform quoting it from a record that did not carry it, and re-verified against the Planalto text: “§ 2º O tempo de duração do estado de defesa não será superior a trinta dias, podendo ser prorrogado uma vez, por igual período, se persistirem as razões que justificaram a sua decretação.” Supports Constituição de 1988, Art. 136 §1º, I–II: “I - restrições aos direitos de: a) reunião, ainda que exercida no seio das associações; b) sigilo de correspondência; c) sigilo de comunicação telegráfica e telefônica; II - ocupação e uso temporário de bens e serviços públicos, na hipótese de calamidade pública, respondendo a União pelos danos e custos decorrentes.”. Supports Constituição de 1988, Art. 136 §3º, I–IV: “§ 3º Na vigência do estado de defesa: I - a prisão por crime contra o Estado, determinada pelo executor da medida, será por este comunicada imediatamente ao juiz competente, que a relaxará, se não for legal, facultado ao preso requerer exame de corpo de delito à autoridade policial; II - a comunicação será acompanhada de declaração, pela autoridade, do estado físico e mental do detido no momento de sua autuação; III - a prisão ou detenção de qualquer pessoa não poderá ser superior a dez dias, salvo quando autorizada pelo Poder Judiciário; IV - é vedada a incomunicabilidade do preso.”. Supports Constituição de 1988, Art. 136 §§4º–7º: “§ 4º Decretado o estado de defesa ou sua prorrogação, o Presidente da República, dentro de vinte e quatro horas, submeterá o ato com a respectiva justificação ao Congresso Nacional, que decidirá por maioria absoluta. § 5º Se o Congresso Nacional estiver em recesso, será convocado, extraordinariamente, no prazo de cinco dias. § 6º O Congresso Nacional apreciará o decreto dentro de dez dias contados de seu recebimento, devendo continuar funcionando enquanto vigorar o estado de defesa. § 7º Rejeitado o decreto, cessa imediatamente o estado de defesa.”. Supports Constituição de 1988, Art. 138, caput: “Art. 138. O decreto do estado de sítio indicará sua duração, as normas necessárias a sua execução e as garantias constitucionais que ficarão suspensas, e, depois de publicado, o Presidente da República designará o executor das medidas específicas e as áreas abrangidas.”. Supports Constituição de 1988, Art. 139: “Art. 139. Na vigência do estado de sítio decretado com fundamento no art. 137, I, só poderão ser tomadas contra as pessoas as seguintes medidas: I - obrigação de permanência em localidade determinada; II - detenção em edifício não destinado a acusados ou condenados por crimes comuns; III - restrições relativas à inviolabilidade da correspondência, ao sigilo das comunicações, à prestação de informações e à liberdade de imprensa, radiodifusão e televisão, na forma da lei; IV - suspensão da liberdade de reunião; V - busca e apreensão em domicílio; VI - intervenção nas empresas de serviços públicos; VII - requisição de bens. Parágrafo único. Não se inclui nas restrições do inciso III a difusão de pronunciamentos de parlamentares efetuados em suas Casas Legislativas, desde que liberada pela respectiva Mesa.”. Supports Constituição de 1988, Art. 141 and parágrafo único: “Art. 141. Cessado o estado de defesa ou o estado de sítio, cessarão também seus efeitos, sem prejuízo da responsabilidade pelos ilícitos cometidos por seus executores ou agentes. Parágrafo único. Logo que cesse o estado de defesa ou o estado de sítio, as medidas aplicadas em sua vigência serão relatadas pelo Presidente da República, em mensagem ao Congresso Nacional, com especificação e justificação das providências adotadas, com relação nominal dos atingidos e indicação das restrições aplicadas.”. Supports Constituição de 1988, Art. 60 §§1º and 4º: “§ 1º A Constituição não poderá ser emendada na vigência de intervenção federal, de estado de defesa ou de estado de sítio. […] § 4º Não será objeto de deliberação a proposta de emenda tendente a abolir: I - a forma federativa de Estado; II - o voto direto, secreto, universal e periódico; III - a separação dos Poderes; IV - os direitos e garantias individuais.”. Supports Constituição de 1988, Art. 142, caput and §1º: “Art. 142. As Forças Armadas, constituídas pela Marinha, pelo Exército e pela Aeronáutica, são instituições nacionais permanentes e regulares, organizadas com base na hierarquia e na disciplina, sob a autoridade suprema do Presidente da República, e destinam-se à defesa da Pátria, à garantia dos poderes constitucionais e, por iniciativa de qualquer destes, da lei e da ordem. § 1º Lei complementar estabelecerá as normas gerais a serem adotadas na organização, no preparo e no emprego das Forças Armadas.”. Cited for the closed lists of permitted measures, the immediate judicial communication of an arrest, the congressional role, the express preservation of liability for unlawful acts after the regime ends, and the bar on amending the Constitution while one is in force. It records no declaration of either regime and supports no claim about any other country.WAVE 21 ADDITION. Article 5 read incisum by incisum from the same Planalto consolidated text. Supports the caput, and specifically its rights-holder scope: “Todos são iguais perante a lei, sem distinção de qualquer natureza, garantindo-se aos brasileiros e aos estrangeiros residentes no País a inviolabilidade do direito à vida, à liberdade, à igualdade, à segurança e à propriedade, nos termos seguintes”. Supports Art. 5º X: “são invioláveis a intimidade, a vida privada, a honra e a imagem das pessoas, assegurado o direito a indenização pelo dano material ou moral decorrente de sua violação”. Supports Art. 5º XI: “a casa é asilo inviolável do indivíduo, ninguém nela podendo penetrar sem consentimento do morador, salvo em caso de flagrante delito ou desastre, ou para prestar socorro, ou, durante o dia, por determinação judicial” — note that judicial authorisation is textually confined to daytime, which is the narrowest such qualifier found in this wave. Supports Art. 5º XII: “é inviolável o sigilo da correspondência e das comunicações telegráficas, de dados e das comunicações telefônicas, salvo, no último caso, por ordem judicial, nas hipóteses e na forma que a lei estabelecer para fins de investigação criminal ou instrução processual penal” — the exception reaches the LAST-NAMED category only, requires a judicial order, and is confined to criminal investigation or criminal procedural instruction. Supports Art. 5º LIV (“ninguém será privado da liberdade ou de seus bens sem o devido processo legal”), LV (contraditório and ampla defesa in judicial and administrative proceedings), LVI (“são inadmissíveis, no processo, as provas obtidas por meios ilícitos”) and LVII. Supports Art. 5º LXI: “ninguém será preso senão em flagrante delito ou por ordem escrita e fundamentada de autoridade judiciária competente, salvo nos casos de transgressão militar ou crime propriamente militar, definidos em lei”. Supports LXII (arrest and place of custody communicated immediately to the competent judge and to the family or a person indicated). Supports LXIII: “o preso será informado de seus direitos, entre os quais o de permanecer calado, sendo-lhe assegurada a assistência da família e de advogado” — a constitutional notification duty coupled with a silence right, and worded for “o preso”. Supports LXIV, LXV (“a prisão ilegal será imediatamente relaxada pela autoridade judiciária”) and LXVI. Supports § 1º (“As normas definidoras dos direitos e garantias fundamentais têm aplicação imediata”), § 2º (rights expressed in the Constitution do not exclude others deriving from the regime and principles it adopts, or from international treaties to which Brazil is party) and § 3º (“Os tratados e convenções internacionais sobre direitos humanos que forem aprovados, em cada Casa do Congresso Nacional, em dois turnos, por três quintos dos votos dos respectivos membros, serão equivalentes às emendas constitucionais”, added by Emenda Constitucional nº 45 de 2004). VERIFIED NEGATIVE: Article 5 contains no general limitation clause of the Canadian, South African, Kenyan or Swiss kind; limits appear inside individual incisos. Constitutional text only — no decision of the Supremo Tribunal Federal, no statute, nothing about any other country.
Bundesministerium der Justiz / Bundesamt für Justiz (Gesetze im Internet) · Legislation · link verified 2026-08-26
The authoritative German text, each provision read directly at its own page on Gesetze im Internet (§ 3, § 43a and § 60 at the corresponding __3, __43a and __60 URLs). Supports § 1, headed "Stellung des Rechtsanwalts in der Rechtspflege", in full: "Der Rechtsanwalt ist ein unabhängiges Organ der Rechtspflege." Supports § 3: the Rechtsanwalt is the appointed independent adviser and representative in all legal matters (1); the right to appear in legal matters of all kinds before courts, arbitral tribunals or authorities may be restricted only by federal statute (2); and everyone has the right, within the statutory provisions, to be advised and represented before courts, arbitral tribunals or authorities by a Rechtsanwalt of their choice (3). Supports § 43a "Grundpflichten": the Rechtsanwalt may enter into no ties that endanger their professional independence (1); is bound to confidentiality covering everything that has become known in the exercise of the profession, excepting facts that are obvious or by their significance require no secrecy, and must bind employed persons to confidentiality in text form and instruct them on the criminal consequences of breach (2); may not conduct themselves unobjectively, unobjective conduct being in particular the knowing dissemination of untruths or such disparaging statements as the other participants or the course of proceedings gave no occasion for (3); and may not act where they have already advised or represented another client in the same legal matter in a conflicting interest, with the prohibition extending to lawyers practising jointly (4). Supports § 60(1): a Rechtsanwaltskammer is formed for the district of each Oberlandesgericht and has its seat at the place of that court, and § 60(2): its members are the persons it has admitted to the Rechtsanwaltschaft or received, together with professional-practice companies it has admitted and specified officers of those companies. It supports nothing about admission requirements, training, numbers, or any other country.